Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Advanced Laser Technologies for Efficient Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02199-4
Hao Liu
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Zilei Wang
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Zebin Tan
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Yonghui Chen
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Jie Yang
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Yibing Shen
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Mingzhi Lv
LONGi Central R&D Institute, LONGi Green Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an 712000, People’s Republic of China
Qiming Liu
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
Chaowei Xue
LONGi Central R&D Institute, LONGi Green Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an 712000, People’s Republic of China
Liang Fang
LONGi Central R&D Institute, LONGi Green Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an 712000, People’s Republic of China
Xixiang Xu
LONGi Central R&D Institute, LONGi Green Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an 712000, People’s Republic of China
Deyan He
School of Materials and Energy, LONGi Institute of Future Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Deyan He

hedy@lzu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 348

Abstract

Laser processing has emerged as a critical enabling technology in the manufacturing of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells. This review systematically examines the fundamental principles and applications of laser technology within the photovoltaic industry. It begins by analyzing the critical influence of laser parameters on the laser–material interaction mechanisms, which ultimately determine the processing quality and the extent of thermal damage. A concise historical overview traces the evolution of laser applications from early laboratory research to later large-scale production of crystalline silicon solar cells. The core of the review is dedicated to a detailed discussion of specific application domains: the utilization of laser thermal effects for doping, oxidation, and crystallization; laser patterning for creating selective emitters, opening passivation layers, and defining intricate structures; and the revolutionary role of lasers in advanced metallization techniques, notably laser pattern transfer printing and laser-assisted sintering. Finally, the review outlines future development trends, highlighting the potential of ultrafast lasers, their integration with novel tandem cell concepts, and the rise of smart, multi-functional stations to push the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of c-Si solar cells.


Highlights:
1 First holistic review: It provides the first systematic review encompassing the entire spectrum of laser processing techniques from doping and ablation to crystallization and contact optimization within the context of the complete high-efficiency c-Si solar cell manufacturing chain (passivated emitter and rear cell, tunnel-oxide-passivated contact, heterojunction, and back contact).
2 Enabler for next-generation cells: It critically highlights the role of laser processing as a key enabling technology for overcoming specific fabrication bottlenecks essential for the commercialization of next-generation cell architectures.

Keywords

Laser Laser modification Laser patterning Laser metallization Crystalline silicon solar cell
Liu, Hao, Zilei Wang, Zebin Tan, Yonghui Chen, Jie Yang, Yibing Shen, Mingzhi Lv, Qiming Liu, Chaowei Xue, Liang Fang, Xixiang Xu, and Deyan He. 2026. “Advanced Laser Technologies for Efficient Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (April):348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02199-4.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. B. Liang, X. Chen, X. Wang, H. Yuan, A. Sun et al., Progress in crystalline silicon heterojunction solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 13(4), 2441–2477 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ta06224h
  2. W. Li, Z. Xu, Y. Yan, J. Zhou, Q. Huang et al., Passivating contacts for crystalline silicon solar cells: an overview of the current advances and future perspectives. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(18), 2304338 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202304338
  3. S. Deng, Y. Cai, U. Roemer, F.-J. Ma, F. Rougieux et al., Mitigating parasitic absorption in Poly-Si contacts for TOPCon solar cells: a comprehensive review. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 267, 112704 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.112704
  4. B. Hallam, S. Wenham, A. Sugianto, L. Mai, C. Chong et al., Record large-area p-type CZ production cell efficiency of 19.3% based on LDSE technology. IEEE J. Photovolt. 1(1), 43–48 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2011.2164392
  5. K.H. Kim, C.S. Park, J.D. Lee, J.Y. Lim, J.M. Yeon et al., Record high efficiency of screen-printed silicon aluminum back surface field solar cell: 20.29%. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 56(8S2), 08MB25 (2017). https://doi.org/10.7567/jjap.56.08mb25
  6. X. Li, Y. Li, L. Hu, C. Guo, J. Chen et al., Study on P-a-Si: H properties of N-type heterogeneous junction solar cells manufactured by large-area parallel plate PECVD machine. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 175, 108253 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2024.108253
  7. M. Di Sabatino, R. Hendawi, A.S. Garcia, Silicon solar cells: trends, manufacturing challenges, and AI perspectives. Crystals 14(2), 15 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14020167
  8. T. Dullweber, J. Schmidt, Industrial silicon solar cells applying the passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC) concept: a review. IEEE J. Photovolt. 6(5), 1366–1381 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2571627
  9. J. Kim, S. Lee, S. Chowdhury, J. Yi, A brief review of passivation materials and process for high efficiency PERC solar cell. Trans. Electr. Electron. Mater. 23(1), 1–5 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42341-021-00366-5
  10. F. Feldmann, M. Bivour, C. Reichel, H. Steinkemper, M. Hermle et al., Tunnel oxide passivated contacts as an alternative to partial rear contacts. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 131, 46–50 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.06.015
  11. K.C. Fong, S. Armand, R. Basnet, D. Yan, M. Ernst et al., Highly transparent nanoscale tunnel oxide polysilicon passivated contacts: optimisation, analysis, and impact study. Sol. RRL 9(16), 2500246 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202500246
  12. M.A. Green, E.D. Dunlop, M. Yoshita, N. Kopidakis, K. Bothe et al., Solar cell efficiency tables (version 66). Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 33(7), 795–810 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3919
  13. Z. Xie, H. Lu, G. Yang, Z. Gao, K. Zhu et al., 27%-efficiency silicon heterojunction cell with 98.6% cell-to-module ratio driving new momentum towards the 29.4% limit. Nat. Commun. 16, 9421 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-64465-0
  14. H. Wu, F. Ye, M. Yang, F. Luo, X. Tang et al., Silicon heterojunction back-contact solar cells by laser patterning. Nature 635(8039), 604–609 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08110-8
  15. Q. Wang, K. Guo, S. Gu, W. Huang, H. Peng et al., Electrical performance, loss analysis, and efficiency potential of industrial-type PERC, TOPCon, and SHJ solar cells: a comparative study. Prog. Photovoltaics 32(12), 889–903 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3839
  16. A.E. Siegman, Laser beams and resonators: the 1960s. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 6(6), 1380–1388 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1109/2944.902192
  17. I.A. Shcherbakov, Development history of the laser. Phys. Usp. 54(1), 65–71 (2011). https://doi.org/10.3367/ufne.0181.201101f.0071
  18. C.N. Danson, M. White, J.R.M. Barr, T. Bett, P. Blyth et al., A history of high-power laser research and development in the United Kingdom. High Power Laser Sci. Eng. 9, e18 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/hpl.2021.5
  19. Z. Li, Y. Leng, R. Li, Further development of the short-pulse petawatt laser: trends, technologies, and bottlenecks. Laser Photonics Rev. 17, 2100705 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.202100705
  20. J. Ma, Z. Qin, G. Xie, L. Qian, D. Tang, Review of mid-infrared mode-locked laser sources in the 2.0 μm–3.5 μm spectral region. Appl. Phys. Rev. 6(2), 021317 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5037274
  21. S.P. Murzin, C. Stiglbrunner, Fabrication of smart materials using laser processing: analysis and prospects. Appl. Sci. 14(1), 85 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010085
  22. G. Gong, J. Ye, Y. Chi, Z. Zhao, Z. Wang et al., Research status of laser additive manufacturing for metal: a review. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 15, 855–884 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.08.050
  23. Y. Kim, E. Hwang, C. Kai, K. Xu, H. Pan et al., Recent developments in selective laser processes for wearable devices. Bio Des. Manuf. 7(4), 517–547 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-024-00300-7
  24. G. Li, X. Zhang, H. Li, B. Zhu, H. Yu et al., The strategies for enhancing the wear resistance of titanium alloy via laser cladding: a review. Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater. 136, 107607 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2025.107607
  25. J. Epperson, R. Dyer, J. Grzywa, The laser now a production tool. West. Electr. Eng. 10(2), 9 (1966)
  26. V.P. Babenko, V.P. Tychinskii, Gas-jet laser cutting (review). Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 2(5), 399–410 (1973). https://doi.org/10.1070/qe1973v002n05abeh004478
  27. E. Kannatey-Asibu Jr., Principles of Laser Materials Processing (Wiley, 2008). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470459300
  28. X. Jia, Y. Chen, L. Liu, C. Wang, J.-A. Duan, Advances in laser drilling of structural ceramics. Nanomaterials 12(2), 230 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12020230
  29. C. Liang, Z. Li, C. Wang, K. Li, Y. Xiang et al., Laser drilling of alumina ceramic substrates: a review. Opt. Laser Technol. 167, 109828 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.109828
  30. K. Jiang, P. Zhang, S. Song, T. Sun, Y. Chen et al., A review of ultra-short pulse laser micromachining of wide bandgap semiconductor materials: SiC and GaN. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 180, 108559 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2024.108559
  31. M.R. Marks, K.Y. Cheong, Z. Hassan, A review of laser ablation and dicing of Si wafers. Precis. Eng. 73, 377–408 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2021.10.001
  32. Z. Sun, M.C. Gupta, Laser processing of silicon for photovoltaics and structural phase transformation. Appl. Surf. Sci. 456, 342–350 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.06.092
  33. M. Vaqueiro-Contreras, B. Hallam, C. Chan, Review of laser doping and its applications in silicon solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 13(3), 373–384 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2023.3244367
  34. G. Wang, Q. Su, H. Tang, H. Wu, H. Lin et al., 27.09%-efficiency silicon heterojunction back contact solar cell and going beyond. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 8931 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53275-5
  35. J.H. Park, S. Pattipaka, G.-T. Hwang, M. Park, Y.M. Woo et al., Light–material interactions using laser and flash sources for energy conversion and storage applications. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 276 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01483-5
  36. G. Nemova, Radiation-balanced lasers: history, status, potential. Appl. Sci. 11(16), 7539 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167539
  37. X. Lu, L. Chang, M.A. Tran, T. Komljenovic, J.E. Bowers et al., Emerging integrated laser technologies in the visible and short near-infrared regimes. Nat. Photonics 18(10), 1010–1023 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-024-01529-5
  38. G. Koren, A. Gupta, R.J. Baseman, M.I. Lutwyche, R.B. Laibowitz, Laser wavelength dependent properties of YBa2Cu3O7–δ thin films deposited by laser ablation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 55(23), 2450–2452 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.101999
  39. M. Möbus, R. Pordzik, A. Krämer, T. Mattulat, Process comparison of laser deep penetration welding in pure nickel using blue and infrared wavelengths. Weld. World 68(6), 1473–1484 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-024-01713-9
  40. F. Liang, C. He, D. Lu, Q. Fang, Y. Fu et al., Multiphonon-assisted lasing beyond the fluorescence spectrum. Nat. Phys. 18(11), 1312–1316 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-022-01748-z
  41. S. Dong, H. Jiao, Z. Wang, J. Zhang, X. Cheng, Interface and defects engineering for multilayer laser coatings. Prog. Surf. Sci. 97(3), 100663 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progsurf.2022.100663
  42. J. Geng, L. Shi, J. Liu, L. Xu, W. Yan et al., Laser-induced deep-subwavelength periodic nanostructures with large-scale uniformity. Appl. Phys. Lett. 122(2), 021104 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0138290
  43. B. Soltani, B. Azarhoushang, A. Zahedi, Laser ablation mechanism of silicon nitride with nanosecond and picosecond lasers. Opt. Laser Technol. 119, 105644 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105644
  44. V. Ezhilmaran, L. Vijayaraghavan, N.J. Vasa, S. Krishnan, Influence of pulse width in laser assisted texturing on moly-chrome films. Appl. Phys. A 124(2), 167 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-018-1582-9
  45. J.A. Spechler, K.A. Nagamatsu, J.C. Sturm, C.B. Arnold, Improved efficiency of hybrid organic photovoltaics by pulsed laser sintering of silver nanowire network transparent electrode. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7(19), 10556–10562 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b02203
  46. Y. Lin, E. Van Kerschaver, K. Cabanas-Holmen, Laser sintering of screen-printed silver paste for silicon solar cells. in 2013 IEEE 39th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), IEEE (2014).pp. 3445–3447 https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC.2013.6745189
  47. X. Shen, P.-C. Hsiao, Z. Wang, M. Liu, B. Phua et al., Modelling picosecond and nanosecond laser ablation for prediction of induced damage on textured SiNx/Si surfaces of Si solar cells. Prog. Photovoltaics 29(9), 1020–1033 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3425
  48. Y. Li, M. Breivik, C.Y. Feng, C.Y. Lin, N. Patel et al., A low repetition rate all-active monolithic passively mode-locked quantum dot laser. In 2010 23rd Annual Meeting of the IEEE Photonics Society, IEEE (2011). pp. 363–364. https://doi.org/10.1109/PHOTONICS.2010.5698910
  49. W. Jiang, M. Shimizu, R.P. Mirin, T.E. Reynolds, J.E. Bowers, Femtosecond periodic gain vertical-cavity lasers. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 5(1), 23–24 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1109/68.185048
  50. A. Nebel, T. Herrmann, B. Henrich, R. Knappe, Fast micromachining using picosecond lasers. Crit. Rev. Ind. Lasers Appl. 5706, 87–98 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.601651
  51. M. Yumoto, N. Saito, Y. Urata, S. Wada, 128 mJ/pulse, laser-diode-pumped, Q-switched Tm: YAG laser. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 21(1), 1601305 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTQE.2014.2338872
  52. Y. Li, G. He, H. Liu, M. Wang, Investigation of heat accumulation in femtosecond laser drilling of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer. Micromachines 14(5), 913 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14050913
  53. J.-H. Wu, H. Wang, Q. Bian, Y. Bo, X.-Y. Guo, High-power, high-beam-quality Q-switched Tm: YAG laser with linearly polarized output at 2.02 μm. Opt. Commun. 599, 132630 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2025.132630
  54. C. Ronchi, M. Sheindlin, M. Musella, G.J. Hyland, Thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide up to 2900 K from simultaneous measurement of the heat capacity and thermal diffusivity. J. Appl. Phys. 85(2), 776–789 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.369159
  55. S. Mahapatra, R. Kumari, D.S. Dkhar, A. Singh, P. Chandra, Laser-scribed micro/nanostructures modified surfaces for electrochemical sensors: from fundamentals to applications. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 192, 118407 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2025.118407
  56. J. Zhu, Z. Ma, Y. Gao, L. Gao, V. Pervak et al., Ablation behavior of plasma-sprayed La1–xSrxTiO3+δ coating irradiated by high-intensity continuous laser. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9(40), 35444–35452 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b11034
  57. P.A. Rebro, Y.C. Shin, F.P. Incropera, Design of operating conditions for crackfree laser-assisted machining of mullite. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 44(7–8), 677–694 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.02.011
  58. S.-Y. Liang, R.-Q. Zhu, H. Xia, Y.-F. Liu, Laser micro-nano processing of optoelectronic materials. Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 8(1), 012009 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ae0b0b
  59. Y. Senatsky, J.-F. Bisson, J. Li, A. Shirakawa, M. Thirugnanasambandam et al., Laguerre-Gaussian modes selection in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Opt. Rev. 19(4), 201–221 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10043-012-0032-8
  60. J. Fantova, A. Rodríguez, L. Omeñaca, O. Beldarrain, G.G. Mandayo et al., Single-step fabrication of highly tunable blazed gratings using triangular-shaped femtosecond laser pulses. Micromachines 15(6), 711 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15060711
  61. J. Wang, J. Xia, Z. Liu, L. Xu, J. Liu et al., A comprehensive review of metal laser hardening: mechanism, process, and applications. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 134(11), 5087–5115 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-14463-1
  62. H.D. Vora, S. Santhanakrishnan, S.P. Harimkar, S.K.S. Boetcher, N.B. Dahotre, One-dimensional multipulse laser machining of structural alumina: evolution of surface topography. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 68(1), 69–83 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-012-4709-8
  63. S. Feng, R. Zhang, C. Huang, J. Wang, Z. Jia, An investigation of recast behavior in laser ablation of 4H-silicon carbide wafer. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 105, 104701 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2019.104701
  64. Y. Rho, K. Lee, L. Wang, C. Ko, Y. Chen et al., A laser-assisted chlorination process for reversible writing of doping patterns in graphene. Nat. Electron. 5(8), 505–510 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-022-00801-2
  65. A. Palla-Papavlu, A. Bercea, M.O. Cernaianu, V. Marascu, B. Butoi et al., Nanosecond laser interaction with Beryllium: study of surface erosion and material removal dynamics. Mater. Des. 260, 114916 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2025.114916
  66. A. Nakimana, H. Tao, X. Gao, Z. Hao, J. Lin, Effects of ambient conditions on femtosecond laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy of Al. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 46(28), 285204 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/46/28/285204
  67. S. Meziani, A. Moussi, S. Chaouchi, A. Guendouzi, Formation of selective emitter from phosphorus diffusion by laser doping process. SILICON 16(10), 4379–4388 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-024-03013-9
  68. Z. Wang, P. Han, H. Lu, H. Qian, L. Chen et al., Advanced PERC and PERL production cells with 20.3% record efficiency for standard commercial p-type silicon wafers. Prog. Photovolt. 20(3), 260–268 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2178
  69. W. Chen, W. Liu, Y. Yu, Y. Ke, Y. Wan, Study on selective emitter fabrication through an innovative pre-diffusion process for enhanced efficiency in TOPCon solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 32(3), 199–211 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3766
  70. I. Martín, P. Ortega, M. Colina, A. Orpella, G. López et al., Laser processing of Al2O3/a-SiCx: H stacks: a feasible solution for the rear surface of high-efficiency p-type c-Si solar cells. Prog. Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 21(5), 1171–1175 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2207
  71. P. Ortega, I. Martín, G. Lopez, M. Colina, A. Orpella et al., P-type c-Si solar cells based on rear side laser processing of Al2O3/SiCx stacks. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 106, 80–83 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2012.05.012
  72. S. Singh, P. Choulat, F. Duerinckx, M.R. Payo, R. Naber et al., Development of 2-sided polysilicon passivating contacts for co-plated bifacial n-PERT cells. in 2020 47th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC). June 15-August 21, 2020. Calgary, AB, Canada. IEEE, (2020). pp. 0449–0452. https://doi.org/10.1109/pvsc45281.2020.9300834
  73. S. Indrišiūnas, B. Voisiat, A. Rėza, I. Šimkienė, R. Mažeikienė et al., Influence of surface modification by laser beam interference ablation on characteristics of p-Si solar cells. Laser Processing and Fabrication for Solar, Displays, and Optoelectronic Devices III. San Diego, California, USA. SPIE, (2014), p. 918007. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2061727
  74. S. Indrišiūnas, B. Voisiat, A. Rėza, I. Šimkienė, R. Mažeikienė et al., Effect of laser-induced conversion of silicon nitride to silicon oxy-nitride on antireflective properties of passivation layer in polysilicon solar cells. Opt. Mater. Express 5(7), 1532 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1364/ome.5.001532
  75. S. Singh, P. Choulat, J. Govaerts, A. van der Heide, V. Depauw et al., Large area co-plated bifacial n-PERT cells with polysilicon passivating contacts on both sides. Prog. Photovolt. 30(8), 899–909 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3548
  76. K. Bronnikov, A. Dostovalov, A. Cherepakhin, E. Mitsai, A. Nepomniaschiy et al., Large-scale and localized laser crystallization of optically thick amorphous silicon films by near-IR femtosecond pulses. Materials 13(22), 5296 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13225296
  77. D. Arduino, S. Stassi, C. Spano, L. Scaltrito, S. Ferrero et al., Silicon and silicon carbide recrystallization by laser annealing: a review. Materials 16(24), 7674 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16247674
  78. J. Zhou, X. Su, B. Zhang, Y. Zeng, W. Liu et al., Ultrafast laser-annealing of hydrogenated amorphous silicon in tunnel oxide passivated contacts for high-efficiency n-type silicon solar cells. Mater. Today Energy 42, 101559 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2024.101559
  79. H. Lin, M. Yang, X. Ru, G. Wang, S. Yin et al., Silicon heterojunction solar cells with up to 26.81% efficiency achieved by electrically optimized nanocrystalline-silicon hole contact layers. Nat. Energy 8(8), 789–799 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01255-2
  80. B.-R. Wu, D.-S. Wuu, M.-S. Wan, W.-H. Huang, H.-Y. Mao et al., Fabrication of nc-Si/c-Si solar cells using hot-wire chemical vapor deposition and laser annealing. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 93(6–7), 993–995 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2008.11.027
  81. A.M. Mostafa, The influence of various parameters on the ablation and deposition mechanisms in pulsed laser deposition. Plasmonics 20(7), 5627–5645 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11468-024-02706-6
  82. P. Rana, D.P. Khatri, A. Kottantharayil, D. Marla, Laser ablation of thin SiNx layer coated on silicon wafer: evaluation of process performance for PERC solar cell application. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 39(6), 065003 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6641/ad3f3f
  83. M. Kim, S. Park, D. Kim, Highly efficient PERC cells fabricated using the low cost laser ablation process. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 117, 126–131 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2013.04.025
  84. G. Wang, M. Yu, H. Wu, Y. Li, L. Xie et al., Silicon solar cells with hybrid back contacts. Nature 647(8089), 369–374 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09681-w
  85. H.-J. Wang, T. Yang, A review on laser drilling and cutting of silicon. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 41(10), 4997–5015 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2021.04.019
  86. N.T. Ho, S. Lee, B.S. Joo, J. Kim, J. Kang et al., Novel approach to color-neutral transparent solar cells: an organic-Si hybrid achieved by laser microhole drilling. Laser Photonics Rev. 18(6), 2301178 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.202301178
  87. G. Paternoster, M. Nicolai, G. de Ceglia, M. Zanuccoli, P. Bellutti et al., Fabrication, simulation, and experimental characterization of EWT solar cells with deep grooved base contact. IEEE J. Photovolt 6(5), 1072–1079 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2571622
  88. J. Chen, S. Singh, A. van der Heide, F. Duerinckx, A. Razzaq et al., Excellent via passivation and high open circuit voltage for large-area n-type MWT-PERT silicon solar cells. Energy Procedia 124, 671–679 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.342
  89. R. Peng, X. Xi, J. Shao, G. Liu, S. Li et al., Study on the bowing of monocrystalline silicon MWT+ PERC solar cells with different laser-ablation condition. Optoelectron. Adv. Mater.-Rapid Commun. 15, 373–380 (2021)
  90. M. Nicolai, G. Paternoster, M. Zanuccoli, G. de Ceglia, P. Bellutti et al., Analysis of the EWT-DGB solar cell at low and medium concentration and comparison with a PESC architecture. Prog. Photovoltaics 25(6), 417–430 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2878
  91. J. Bing, L.G. Caro, H.P. Talathi, N.L. Chang, D.R. McKenzie et al., Perovskite solar cells for building integrated photovoltaics⁠: glazing applications. Joule 6(7), 1446–1474 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.003
  92. C. Munoz-Garcia, I. Torres, D. Canteli, J.M. Molla, S. Fernández et al., LIFT metallization as an alternative to screen-printing for silicon heterojunction solar cells. Opt. Laser Technol. 175, 110838 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.110838
  93. D. Canteli, C. Munoz-Garcia, P. Ortega, E. Ros, M. Morales et al., LIFT front-contact metallization of silicon solar cells. Results Phys. 27, 104504 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2021.104504
  94. J. Lossen, M. Matusovsky, A. Noy, C. Maier, M. Bähr, Pattern transfer printing (PTPTM) for c-Si solar cell metallization. Energy Procedia 67, 156–162 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.03.299
  95. A. Adrian, D. Rudolph, N. Willenbacher, J. Lossen, Finger metallization using pattern transfer printing technology for c-Si solar cell. IEEE J Photovolt. 10(5), 1290–1298 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3007001
  96. Q. Gao, Z. Yang, Y. Zhang, Y. Liang, Y. Bao et al., Mechanism insights into laser-enhanced-contact-optimization process in crystalline silicon solar cells via photo-electric-thermal coupled simulations. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 299, 114177 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114177
  97. Q. Wang, K. Guo, S. Gu, W. Wu, L. Li et al., Impact of laser-enhanced contact optimization on n-TOPCon solar cells’ performance and efficiency: experimental and simulated insights. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 285, 113526 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.113526
  98. D. Ourinson, G. Emanuel, K. Rahmanpour, F. Ogiewa, H. Muller et al., Laser-powered co-firing process for highly efficient Si solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 11(2), 282–288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/jphotov.2020.3043856
  99. A. Mette, S. Hörnlein, F. Stenzel, R. Hönig, I. Höger et al., Q.ANTUM NEO with LECO exceeding 25.5 % cell efficiency. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 277, 113110 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.113110
  100. J.M. Greulich, C. Leon, S. Mack, D. Ourinson, J.D. Huyeng et al., Microstructure analysis of current-fired contacts on TOPCon layers. Sol. RRL 9(11), 2500197 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202500197
  101. E. Van Kerschaver, G. Beaucarne, Back-contact solar cells: a review. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 14(2), 107–123 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.657
  102. R.T. Young, R.F. Wood, W.H. Christie, G.E. Jellison Jr., Substrate heating and emitter dopant effects in laser-annealed solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 39(4), 313–315 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.92704
  103. R.H. Micheels, P.E. Valdivia, Excimer laser junction of crystalline silicon solar cells. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 37(2), 353–354 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1109/16.46365
  104. M. Hanabusa, Z. Liu, N. Nakamura, H. Hasegawa, Pulsed laser deposition of silicon films for solar cell applications. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B Beam Interact. Mater. Atoms 121(1–4), 367–370 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(96)00539-3
  105. A. Razzaq, J. Chen, F. Duerinckx, I. Gordon, J. Szlufcik et al., Analytical modelling of via-associated recombination losses in MWT solar cells. Energy Procedia 124, 152–160 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.319
  106. F. Miao, S. Zhang, W. Lian, B. Zhao, Q. Wei, Improvement of PERC solar cell efficiency based on laser-doped selective emitter. in 15th International Conference on Concentrator Photovoltaic Systems (CPV-15) Fes, Morocco. AIP Publishing, (2019), p. 040011. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123838
  107. W. Wu, Z. Zhang, F. Zheng, W. Lin, Z. Liang et al., Efficiency enhancement of bifacial PERC solar cells with laser-doped selective emitter and double-screen-printed Al grid. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 26(9), 752–760 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3013
  108. F. Kersten, R. Lantzsch, N. Buschmann, Y. Neumann, K. Petter et al., Letid sensitivity of gallium- boron-doped cz-si perc solar cells with an average conversion efficiency of 23.6%. AIP Conf. Proc. 2487, 130007 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0089271
  109. R.P. Lyanda, I.J. Mwakitalima, Renewable energy in Tanzania: advancements in solar PV applications—review. Int. J. Energy Appl. Technol. 11(1), 71–85 (2025). https://doi.org/10.31593/ijeat.1723343
  110. D.K. Ghosh, S. Bose, G. Das, S. Acharyya, A. Nandi et al., Fundamentals, present status and future perspective of TOPCon solar cells: a comprehensive review. Surf. Interfaces 30, 101917 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2022.101917
  111. Z. Sun, X. Chen, Y. He, J. Li, J. Wang et al., Toward efficiency limits of crystalline silicon solar cells: recent progress in high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(23), 2200015 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202200015
  112. F. Feldmann, M. Bivour, C. Reichel, M. Hermle, S.W. Glunz, Passivated rear contacts for high-efficiency n-type Si solar cells providing high interface passivation quality and excellent transport characteristics. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 120, 270–274 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2013.09.017
  113. X. Li, Q. Wang, X. Dong, J. Li, X. Zhang et al., Optimization of efficiency enhancement of TOPCon cells with boron selective emitter. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 263, 112585 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112585
  114. Y. Fan, S. Zou, Y. Zeng, L. Dai, Z. Wang et al., Investigation of the Ag–Si contact characteristics of boron emitters for n-tunnel oxide-passivated contact solar cells metallized by laser-assisted current injection treatment. Solar RRL 8(13), 2400268 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202400268
  115. T. Fellmeth, H. Höffler, S. Mack, E. Krassowski, K. Krieg et al., Laser-enhanced contact optimization oniTOPCon solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 30(12), 1393–1399 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3598
  116. K. Yoshikawa, W. Yoshida, T. Irie, H. Kawasaki, K. Konishi et al., Exceeding conversion efficiency of 26% by heterojunction interdigitated back contact solar cell with thin film Si technology. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 173, 37–42 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.06.024
  117. Z. Shi, S. Wenham, J. Ji, Mass production of the innovative PLUTO solar cell technology. in 2009 34th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), IEEE (2010), pp. 1922–1926
  118. T. Dullweber, S. Gatz, H. Hannebauer, T. Falcon, R. Hesse et al., Towards 20% efficient large-area screen-printed rear-passivated silicon solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 20(6), 630–638 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.1198
  119. W. Yin, X. Wang, F. Zhang, L. Zhang, 19.6% cast mono-MWT solar cells and 268 W modules. in 2012 IEEE 38th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC) PART 2., IEEE (2013). pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC-Vol2.2013.6656793
  120. A. Adrian, D. Rudolph, J. Lossen, M. Matusovsky, V. Chandrasekaran. Benefits of pattern transfer printing method for finger metallization on silicon solar cells. in Proceedings of the 35th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference. (2018). https://doi.org/10.4229/35thEUPVSEC20182018-2CO.12.2
  121. D. Ding, Z. Du, R. Liu, C. Quan, J. Bao et al., Laser doping selective emitter with thin borosilicate glass layer for n-type TOPCon c-Si solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 253, 112230 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112230
  122. H. Tong, S. Tan, Y. Zhang, Y. He, C. Ding et al., Total-area world-record efficiency of 27.03% for 350.0 cm2 commercial-sized single-junction silicon solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16(1), 5920 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-61128-y
  123. N. Balaji, D. Lai, V. Shanmugam, P.K. Basu, A. Khanna et al., Pathways for efficiency improvements of industrial PERC silicon solar cells. Sol. Energy 214, 101–109 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.11.025
  124. X. Wang, J. Yuan, X. Wu, J. Nie, Y. Zhang et al., Higher-efficiency TOPCon solar cells in mass production enabled by laser-assisted firing: advanced loss analysis and near-term efficiency potential. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 33(7), 771–781 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3921
  125. F. Haase, B. Min, C. Hollemann, J. Krügener, R. Brendel et al., Fully screen-printed silicon solar cells with local Al-p+ and n-type POLO interdigitated back contacts with a VOC of 716 mV and an efficiency of 23%. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 29(5), 516–523 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3399
  126. F. Haase, C. Hollemann, S. Schafer, J. Krügener, R. Brendel et al., Transferring the record p-type Si POLO-IBC cell technology towards an industrial level. in 2019 IEEE 46th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), IEEE (2020). pp 2200–2206. https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC40753.2019.8980960
  127. M. Xu, T. Bearda, M. Filipič, H.S. Radhakrishnan, I. Gordon et al., Simple emitter patterning of silicon heterojunction interdigitated back-contact solar cells using damage-free laser ablation. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 186, 78–83 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2018.06.027
  128. S. Harrison, O. Nos, G. D’Alonzo, C. Denis, A. Coll et al., Back contact heterojunction solar cells patterned by laser ablation. Energy Procedia 92, 730–737 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.07.051
  129. A. Sinha, A. Soman, U. Das, S. Hegedus, M.C. Gupta, Nanosecond pulsed laser patterning of interdigitated back contact heterojunction silicon solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 10(6), 1648–1656 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3026907
  130. M. Kaur, S. Gautam, N. Goyal, Ion-implantation and photovoltaics efficiency: a review. Mater. Lett. 309, 131356 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2021.131356
  131. M.E. Greiner, J.F. Gibbons, Diffusion of silicon in gallium arsenide using rapid thermal processing: experiment and model. Appl. Phys. Lett. 44(8), 750–752 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.94904
  132. H. Li, K. Kim, B. Hallam, B. Hoex, S. Wenham et al., POCl3 diffusion for industrial Si solar cell emitter formation. Front. Energy 11(1), 42–51 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-016-0433-7
  133. T.M. Liu, W.G. Oldham, Channeling effect of low energy boron implant in. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 4(3), 59–62 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDL.1983.25647
  134. J. Narayan, R.T. Young, C.W. White, A comparative study of laser and thermal annealing of boron-implanted silicon. J. Appl. Phys. 49(7), 3912–3917 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.325398
  135. B. Min, H. Wagner, A. Dastgheib-Shirazi, A. Kimmerle, H. Kurz et al., Heavily doped Si: P emitters of crystalline Si solar cells: recombination due to phosphorus precipitation. physica status solidi (RRL) Rapid Res. Lett. 8(8), 680–684 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssr.201409138
  136. J. Chen, T.O. Abdul Fattah, A. Soeriyadi, M. Wright, E. Khorani et al., Enabling highly conductive charged oxide inversion layers through hot Corona discharge. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 295, 113930 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.113930
  137. S. Gu, L. Yuan, K. Guo, W. Huang, L. Li et al., Laser damage and post oxidation repair performance of n-TOPCon solar cells with laser assisted doping boron selective emitter. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 274, 112988 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.112988
  138. Q.Z. Zhang, B.F. Shu, M.B. Chen, N.B. Zhong, J.J. Luo et al., Numerical investigation on selective emitter formation by laser doping for phosphorous-doped silicon solar cells. J. Laser Appl. 29(2), 022003 (2017). https://doi.org/10.2351/1.4979303
  139. B. Hallam, C. Chan, A. Sugianto, S. Wenham, Deep junction laser doping for contacting buried layers in silicon solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 113, 124–134 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2013.02.011
  140. K. Sakamoto, K. Nishi, F. Ichikawa, S. Ushio, Segregation and transport coefficients of impurities at the Si/SiO2 interface. J. Appl. Phys. 61(4), 1553–1555 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.338089
  141. Y. Zhang, L. Wang, D. Chen, M. Kim, B. Hallam, Pathway towards 24% efficiency for fully screen-printed passivated emitter and rear contact solar cells. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 54(21), 214003 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/abe900
  142. T. Li, W. Wang, C. Zhou, Y. Song, Y. Duan et al., Laser-doped solar cells exceeding 18% efficiency on large-area commercial-grade multicrystalline silicon substrates. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 21(6), 1337–1342 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2292
  143. M. Ernst, A. Fell, E. Franklin, K.J. Weber, Characterization of recombination properties and contact resistivity of laser-processed localized contacts from doped silicon nanop ink and spin-on dopants. IEEE J. Photovolt. 7(2), 471–478 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2655028
  144. S. Acharyya, S. Sadhukhan, T. Panda, D.K. Ghosh, N.C. Mandal et al., Dopant-free materials for carrier-selective passivating contact solar cells: a review. Surf. Interfaces 28, 101687 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2021.101687
  145. S. Nabi, A. Isaev, A. Chiolerio, Inkjet printing of functional materials for low-temperature electronics: a review of materials and strategies. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 6(11), 7679–7719 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.4c01257
  146. S. Wang, L. Mai, A. Wenham, Z. Hameiri, D. Payne et al., Selective emitter solar cell through simultaneous laser doping and grooving of silicon followed by self-aligned metal plating. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 169, 151–158 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.05.018
  147. G. Agostinelli, A. Delabie, P. Vitanov, Z. Alexieva, H.F.W. Dekkers et al., Very low surface recombination velocities on p-type silicon wafers passivated with a dielectric with fixed negative charge. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 90(18–19), 3438–3443 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2006.04.014
  148. N.-P. Harder, Y. Larionova, R. Brendel, Al+-doping of Si by laser ablation of Al2O3/SiN passivation. Phys. Status Solidi A 210(9), 1871–1873 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201329058
  149. B. Steinhauser, U. Jäger, J. Benick, M. Hermle, PassDop rear side passivation based on Al2O3/a-SiCx: B stacks for p-type PERL solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 131, 129–133 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.05.001
  150. B. Steinhauser, M. bin Mansoor, U. Jäger, J. Benick, M. Hermle, Firing-stable PassDop passivation for screen printed n-type PERL solar cells based on a-SiNx: P. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 126, 96–100 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.03.047
  151. M.H. Norouzi, P. Saint-Cast, E. Lohmüller, B. Steinhauser, J. Benick et al., Development and characterization of multifunctional PassDop layers for local p+-laser doping. Energy Procedia 124, 891–900 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.278
  152. M.H. Norouzi, J. Weber, C. Teßmann, E. Lohmüller, S. Lohmüller et al., PERC solar cells on p-type cz-Si utilizing phosphorus-doped SiNX layers. IEEE J. Photovolt. 12(1), 213–221 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2021.3116015
  153. Q. Wang, K. Guo, L. Yuan, L. Li, H. Peng et al., Boron tube diffusion process parameters for high-efficiency n-TOPCon solar cells with selective boron emitters. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 253, 112231 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112231
  154. S. Baumann, D. Kray, K. Mayer, A. Eyer, G.P. Willeke, Comparative study of laser induced damage in silicon wafers. in 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference, IEEE (2007). pp 1142–1145. https://doi.org/10.1109/WCPEC.2006.279363
  155. R. Chen, M. Wright, D. Chen, J. Yang, P. Zheng et al., 24.58% efficient commercial n-type silicon solar cells with hydrogenation. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 29(11), 1213–1218 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3464
  156. W.O. Adekoya, J.C. Muller, P. Siffert, Rapid thermal annealing of electrically-active defects in virgin and implanted silicon. Appl. Phys. A 42(3), 227–232 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00620605
  157. S. Wang, L. Mai, A. Ciesla, Z. Hameiri, D. Payne et al., Advanced passivation of laser-doped and grooved solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 193, 403–410 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2019.01.025
  158. J.L. Benton, C.J. Doherty, S.D. Ferris, L.C. Kimerling, H.J. Leamy et al., Post illumination annealing of defects in laser-processed silicon, in Laser and Electron Beam Processing of Materials. (Elsevier, 1980), pp.430–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-746850-1.50064-5
  159. S.P. Muduli, P. Kale, State-of-the-art passivation strategies of c-Si for photovoltaic applications: a review. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 154, 107202 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2022.107202
  160. L. Mai, E.J. Mitchell, K.S. Wang, D. Lin, S. Wenham, The development of the advanced semiconductor finger solar cell. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 22(12), 1195–1203 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2364
  161. K. Chen, E. Napolitani, M. De Tullio, C.-S. Jiang, H. Guthrey et al., Pulsed laser annealed Ga hyperdoped poly-Si/SiOx passivating contacts for high-efficiency monocrystalline Si solar cells. Energy Environ. Mater. 6(3), e12542 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12542
  162. B. Zieliński, B.J. O’Sullivan, S. Singh, A. Urueña de Castro, Y. Li et al., Process simplification for 15.6 × 15.6 cm2 interdigitated back contact silicon solar cells by laser doping. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 163, 66–72 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.12.041
  163. M. Ernst, E. Franklin, A. Fell, K. Fong, D. Walter et al., Fabrication of a 22.8% efficient back contact solar cell with localized laser-doping. Phys. Status Solidi A 214(11), 1700318 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201700318
  164. Z. Du, C. Zhang, F. Li, R. Zhou, M. Hong, Impact of laser-induced oxidation on silicon wafer solar cells’ performance. IEEE J. Photovolt. 6(3), 617–623 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2535243
  165. S. Dasgupta, Y.-W. Ok, V.D. Upadhyaya, W.-J. Choi, Y.-Y. Huang et al., Novel process for screen-printed selective area front polysilicon contacts for TOPCon cells using laser oxidation. IEEE J. Photovolt. 12(6), 1282–1288 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2022.3196822
  166. S. Kluska, A. Büchler, J. Bartsch, B. Grübel, A.A. Brand et al., Easy plating: a simple approach to suppress parasitically metallized areas in front side Ni/Cu plated crystalline Si solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 7(5), 1270–1277 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2720461
  167. S. Dasgupta, P. Padhamnath, V. Upadhyaya, Y.W. Ok, R. Zhong et al., Patterning the front polysilicon contact for silicon solar cells using laser oxidation. in 2023 IEEE 50th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), IEEE. pp 1–5. (2023)
  168. A.A.D.T. Adikaari, S.R.P. Silva, Excimer laser crystallization and nanostructuring of amorphous silicon for photovoltaic applications. NANO 3(3), 117–126 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1142/s1793292008000915
  169. S. Liu, H. Jiang, J. Wang, L. Liu, Z. Zhou et al., Scalable manufacturing and precise patterning of perovskites for light-emitting diodes. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 183 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-02012-8
  170. G. Andrä, F. Falk, Multicrystalline silicon films with large grains on glass: preparation and applications. Phys. Status Solidi C 5(10), 3221–3228 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssc.200779509
  171. W. Yeh, T. Shirakawa, A.H. Pham, Tendency of crystal orientation rotation toward stable{001}during lateral crystal growth of Si thin film sandwiched by SiO2. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 60, SBBM06 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35848/1347-4065/abefaa
  172. C. Korkut, K. Çınar, İ Kabaçelik, R. Turan, M. Kulakcı et al., Laser crystallization of amorphous Ge thin films via a nanosecond pulsed infrared laser. Cryst. Growth Des. 21(8), 4632–4639 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.cgd.1c00470
  173. S.Y. Ji, W.-S. Lee, H. Cho, W.S. Chang, Continuous wave and ultrafast laser combined annealing for efficient recrystallization of amorphous silicon. Appl. Phys. A 132(1), 10 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-025-09160-z
  174. A. Shariah, Crystallization of hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films using combined continuous wave laser and thermal annealing. SILICON 16(10), 4461–4470 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-024-03003-x
  175. W. Beyer, M. Nuys, G. Andrä, H. Ali Bosan, U. Breuer et al., Secondary ion mass spectrometry study of hydrogenated amorphous silicon layer disintegration upon rapid (laser) annealing. Phys. Status Solidi A 220(12), 2200671 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.202200671
  176. G.C. Wilkes, A.D. Upadhyaya, A. Rohatgi, M.C. Gupta, Laser crystallization and dopant activation of a-Si: H carrier-selective layer in TOPCon Si solar cells. IEEE. J. Photovolt. 10(5), 1283–1289 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3006273
  177. Y. Wang, D. Yan, J.I. Michel, S. Mahasivam, V. Bansal et al., Ultraviolet laser activation of phosphorus-doped polysilicon layers for crystalline silicon solar cells. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 12(1), 2400542 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202400542
  178. S.H. Lee, Cost effective process for high-efficiency solar cells. Sol. Energy 83(8), 1285–1289 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2009.03.002
  179. D. Stüwe, D. Mager, D. Biro, J.G. Korvink, Inkjet technology for crystalline silicon photovoltaics. Adv. Mater. 27(4), 599–626 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201403631
  180. T. Dullweber, M. Stöhr, C. Kruse, F. Haase, M. Rudolph et al., Evolutionary PERC+ solar cell efficiency projection towards 24% evaluating shadow-mask-deposited poly-Si fingers below the Ag front contact as next improvement step. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 212, 110586 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110586
  181. S. Ring, S. Kirner, C. Schultz, P. Sonntag, B. Stannowski et al., Emitter patterning for back-contacted Si heterojunction solar cells using laser written mask layers for etching and self-aligned passivation (LEAP). IEEE. J. Photovolt. 6(4), 894–899 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2566882
  182. W. Schulz, G. Simon, H.M. Urbassek, I. Decker, On laser fusion cutting of metals. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 20(4), 481–488 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/20/4/013
  183. K.-H. Leitz, B. Redlingshöfer, Y. Reg, A. Otto, M. Schmidt, Metal ablation with short and ultrashort laser pulses. Phys. Procedia 12, 230–238 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2011.03.128
  184. L.J. Lewis, D. Perez, Laser ablation with short and ultrashort laser pulses: basic mechanisms from molecular-dynamics simulations. Appl. Surf. Sci. 255(10), 5101–5106 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2008.07.116
  185. D. Perez, L.J. Lewis, Molecular-dynamics study of ablation of solids under femtosecond laser pulses. Phys. Rev. B 67(18), 184102 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevb.67.184102
  186. A. Miotello, R. Kelly, Laser-induced phase explosion: new physical problems when a condensed phase approaches the thermodynamic critical temperature. Appl. Phys. A 69(1), S67–S73 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1007/s003399900296
  187. J. Kim, J. Kim, J.-Y. Lim, Y. Hwang, J. Cho et al., Laser ablation of aluminum oxide and silicon nitride rear-side passivation for i-PERC cell. Renew. Energy 79, 135–139 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.09.018
  188. P. Rana, A. Singh, A. Kottantharayil, D. Marla, Precise removal of ultra-thin SiNx layer deposited on silicon substrate using nanosecond green laser for PERC solar cell fabrication. Manuf. Lett. 35, 58–62 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2022.12.003
  189. F. Gérenton, F. Mandorlo, E. Fourmond, M. Le Coz, D. Blanc-Pélissier et al., Laser ablation compatible substoichiometric SiOx/SiNy passivating rear side mirror for passivated emitter and rear thin-film crystalline silicon solar cells. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vac. Surf. Films 34(5), 051201 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1116/1.4958985
  190. Y. Zhang, Q. Jiang, M. Long, R. Han, K. Cao et al., Femtosecond laser-induced periodic structures: mechanisms, techniques, and applications. Opto-Electron. Sci. 1(6), 220005 (2022). https://doi.org/10.29026/oes.2022.220005
  191. J. Zheng, Z. Zhang, Z. Wu, G. Li, S. Sun et al., Precision laser ablation of dielectric layers: unveiling multi-parameter synergy for industrial-compatible, low-damage processing. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 295, 113945 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.113945
  192. A. Fell, J. Schön, M. Müller, N. Wöhrle, M.C. Schubert et al., Modeling edge recombination in silicon solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 8(2), 428–434 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2787020
  193. H. Sai, T. Matsui, Ultra-narrow strip-shaped silicon solar cells for semi-transparent PV modules: interplay among cut edges, cell structure, strip dimensions, and partial edge passivation. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 298, 114166 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114166
  194. C. Ballif, F.-J. Haug, M. Boccard, P.J. Verlinden, G. Hahn, Status and perspectives of crystalline silicon photovoltaics in research and industry. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7(8), 597–616 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-022-00423-2
  195. F. Haase, C. Hollemann, S. Schäfer, A. Merkle, M. Rienäcker et al., Laser contact openings for local poly-Si-metal contacts enabling 26.1%-efficient POLO-IBC solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 186, 184–193 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2018.06.020
  196. M.K. Mat Desa, S. Sapeai, A.W. Azhari, K. Sopian, M.Y. Sulaiman et al., Silicon back contact solar cell configuration: a pathway towards higher efficiency. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60, 1516–1532 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.03.004
  197. A. Munzer, P. Baliozian, A. Steinmetz, T. Geipel, S. Pingel et al., Post-separation processing for silicon heterojunction half solar cells with passivated edges. IEEE J. Photovolt. 11(6), 1343–1349 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/jphotov.2021.3099732
  198. S. Eiternick, F. Kaule, H.-U. Zühlke, T. Kießling, M. Grimm et al., High quality half-cell processing using thermal laser separation. Energy. Procedia 77, 340–345 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.048
  199. W. Li, X. Wang, J. Guo, X. Zhang, B. Chen et al., Compensating cutting losses by passivation solution for industry upgradation of TOPCon and SHJ solar cells. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 4(2), 2200154 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202200154
  200. W.P. Mulligan, T.A., D.D. Smith, P.J. Verlinden, R.M. Swanson, Development of chip-size silicon solar cells. in Conference Record of the Twenty-Eighth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference 2000, IEEE. pp 158–163. (2002)
  201. H. Yuan, X. Chen, B. Liang, A. Sun, X. Wang et al., Research progress of passivation layer technology for crystalline silicon solar cells. Acta Phys. Sin. 74(4), 047801 (2025). https://doi.org/10.7498/aps.74.20241292
  202. J. Zhao, A. Wang, P.P. Altermatt, G. Zhang, Peripheral loss reduction of high efficiency silicon solar cells by MOS gate passivation, by poly-Si filled grooves and by cell pattern design. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 8(2), 201–210 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200003/04)8:2%3c201::AID-PIP288%3e3.0.CO;2-V
  203. N. Chen, D. Tune, F. Buchholz, R. Roescu, M. Zeman et al., Stable passivation of cut edges in encapsulated n-type silicon solar cells using Nafion polymer. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 258, 112401 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112401
  204. W. Lu, X. Yang, Q. Kang, J. Li, Z. Zhou et al., Patterning design for edge passivation in compound crystalline silicon solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36, 2514833 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202514833
  205. X. Lv, Z. Hu, L. Yang, J. Huang, X. Yu et al., Transmission electron microscopy study on the laser-cutting induced microdefects in silicon heterojunction solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 292, 113792 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.113792
  206. Y. Kim, C. Lee, G. Kang, Y. Yoon, J. Ahn et al., Scalable hybrid solar window with high transparency, high efficiency, and superior color rendering. Joule 9(12), 102216 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2025.102216
  207. L. Rihakova, H. Chmelickova, Laser micromachining of glass, silicon, and ceramics. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2015, 584952 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/584952
  208. H. Wang, H. Lin, C. Wang, L. Zheng, X. Hu, Laser drilling of structural ceramics: a review. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 37(4), 1157–1173 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
  209. X. Li, Z. Ying, S. Li, L. Chen, M. Zhang et al., Top-down dual-interface carrier management for highly efficient and stable perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 141 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01631-x
  210. B.-Q. Lin, C.-P. Huang, K.-Y. Tian, P.-H. Lee, W.-F. Su et al., Laser patterning technology based on nanosecond pulsed laser for manufacturing bifacial perovskite solar modules. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.-Green Technol. 10(1), 123–139 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-022-00421-3
  211. J. Dagar, M. Fenske, A. Al-Ashouri, C. Schultz, B. Li et al., Compositional and interfacial engineering yield high-performance and stable p-i-n perovskite solar cells and mini-modules. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(11), 13022–13033 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c17893
  212. J. Meier, J. Spitznagel, U. Kroll, C. Bucher, S. Faÿ et al., Potential of amorphous and microcrystalline silicon solar cells. Thin Solid Films 451, 518–524 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2003.11.014
  213. Y. Jeong, Y. Kim, H. Lee, S. Ko, S.S. Ham et al., Laser scribing for perovskite solar modules of long-term stability. Solar RRL 8(8), 2301040 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202301040
  214. P. Mantilla-Perez, T. Feurer, J.-P. Correa-Baena, Q. Liu, S. Colodrero et al., Monolithic CIGS–perovskite tandem cell for optimal light harvesting without current matching. ACS Photonics 4(4), 861–867 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsphotonics.6b00929
  215. Q. Chang, P. He, H. Huang, Y. Peng, X. Han et al., Modified near-infrared annealing enabled rapid and homogeneous crystallization of perovskite films for efficient solar modules. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 272 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01792-3
  216. X.-L. Trinh, N.-H. Tran, H. Seo, H.-C. Kim, Enhanced performance of perovskite solar cells via laser-induced heat treatment on perovskite film. Sol. Energy 206, 301–307 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.063
  217. J. Yi, J. Bing, C.-Y. Yeh, C. Bailey, G. Wang et al., Efficient all ambient-laser-annealed perovskite-organic-photovoltaic tandem solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202510336
  218. S. Tepner, A. Lorenz, Printing technologies for silicon solar cell metallization: a comprehensive review. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 31(6), 557–590 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3674
  219. Y. Zeng, C.-W. Peng, W. Hong, S. Wang, C. Yu et al., Review on metallization approaches for high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells. Trans. Tianjin Univ. 28(5), 358–373 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12209-022-00336-9
  220. T. Wenzel, A. Lorenz, E. Lohmüller, S. Auerbach, K. Masuri et al., Progress with screen printed metallization of silicon solar cells—towards 20 μm line width and 20 Mg silver laydown for PERC front side contacts. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 244, 111804 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111804
  221. A.U. Rehman, S.H. Lee, Review of the potential of the Ni/Cu plating technique for crystalline silicon solar cells. Materials 7(2), 1318–1341 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7021318
  222. A. Rodofili, W. Wolke, L. Kroely, M. Bivour, G. Cimiotti et al., Laser transfer and firing of NiV seed layer for the metallization of silicon heterojunction solar cells by Cu-plating. Sol. RRL 1(8), 1700085 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.201700085
  223. T. Böscke, R. Hellriegel, T. Wütherich, L. Bornschein, A. Helbig et al., Fully screen-printed perc cells with laser-fired contacts—an industrial cell concept with 19.5% efficiency. in 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference. (2011). pp. 003663–003666. https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC.2011.6185945
  224. S. Großer, E. Krassowski, S. Swatek, H. Zhao, C. Hagendorf, Microscale contact formation by laser enhanced contact optimization. IEEE J. Photovolt. 12(1), 26–30 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2021.3129362
  225. R. Zhou, Y. Li, Z. Zhang, W. Tan, Z. Chen et al., Nano-size joule-heating to achieve low-ohmic Ag–Si contact on boron emitters of n-TOPCon solar cells. Small 21(4), 2409628 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202409628
  226. H. Höffler, F. Simon, E. Krassowski, J. Greulich, Understanding current paths and temperature distributions during ‘Laser Enhanced Contact Optimization’ (LECO). in Siliconpv 2022, the 12th International Conference on Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics Konstanz, Germany. AIP Publishing, Proceedings 2826(1), 040002 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0141008
  227. Z. Guo, J. Liu, X. Zhou, Y. Sun, H. Yu et al., Characterizing glass frits for high efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells by etching experiments. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 276, 113065 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.113065
  228. M. Lu, C. Zhang, S.Y. Zhu, Y. Xu, X. Xie et al., Investigation of front-side metallization contact for screen-printable industrial N-TOPCon solar cells with laser-enhanced contact optimization (LECO) process. in 2025 IEEE 53rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), IEEE (2025). pp. 770–774
  229. P. Kumar, M. Pfeffer, B. Willsch, O. Eibl, L.J. Koduvelikulathu et al., N-type single-crystalline Si solar cells: front side metallization for solar cells reaching 20% efficiency. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 157, 200–208 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.05.027
  230. G. Xing, W. Chen, Y. Liu, X. Du, Regulation to Ag–Al spikes through silver aluminum paste with Al–Si alloy. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 273, 112968 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.112968
  231. G. Xing, W. Chen, Y. Liu, X. Du, Al-induced variation to Ag crystal orientation of Ag–Al pastes during metallization. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 270, 112814 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.112814
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >>