Issue

Vol. 19 (2027)

Capacity Degradation Mechanisms, Recovery Strategies, and Challenges of Flow Batteries

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02345-y
Xu Lin
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Meisheng Han
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Haolin Ju
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Hengyuan Hu
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Wanqi Hu
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Jiajie Luo
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Lei Wei
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Lin Zeng
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Wenjia Li
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
Tianshou Zhao
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage, Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Tianshou Zhao

zhaots@sustech.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 19 (2027), Article Number: 44

Abstract

Redox flow batteries, by virtue of their advantages in power/capacity decoupling, high safety, and long cycle life, have become a strategic support for long-duration energy storage systems; however, capacity degradation remains a bottleneck for their commercialization. This review systematically identifies the multi-dimensional mechanisms of capacity degradation: including volume imbalance caused by transmembrane migration, inactivation and decomposition of active species, electrode degradation, and valence imbalance induced by side reactions. Targeting these challenges, the review deeply explores recovery strategies from physical repair to intelligent scheduling: covering the research and development of high-selectivity membranes, precise regulation of valence states, functionalized repair of electrodes, and model-driven predictive pathways integrating digital twins. Finally, current challenges such as characterization limitations and incomplete recovery rates are summarized, and future development directions for capacity recovery are envisioned. This review aims to provide a theoretical basis and technical guidance for extending the system cycle life of flow batteries and improving capacity recovery efficiency.


Highlights:
1 Systematically elucidates the physical (transmembrane migration-induced volume imbalance), chemical (inactivation of active species), and interfacial (electrode degradation, hydrogen/oxygen evolution) origins of capacity fade in redox flow batteries.
2 Summarizes recovery approaches from physical repair to intelligent scheduling, including high-selectivity membranes, precise valence regulation, electrode active-site regeneration, and model-driven collaborative scheduling.
3 Highlights bottlenecks (transient multi-physics coupling, kinetic limits at high current densities, stochastic predictive models) and future directions (operando multi-modal characterization, AI-accelerated smart materials discovery, digital-twin-based autonomous regulation).

Keywords

Long-duration energy storage Redox flow batteries Capacity fade Capacity recovery
Lin, Xu, Meisheng Han, Haolin Ju, Hengyuan Hu, Wanqi Hu, Jiajie Luo, Lei Wei, Lin Zeng, Wenjia Li, and Tianshou Zhao. 2026. “Capacity Degradation Mechanisms, Recovery Strategies, and Challenges of Flow Batteries”. Nano-Micro Letters 19 (September):44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02345-y.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. R. Shan, J. Reagan, S. Castellanos, S. Kurtz, N. Kittner, Evaluating emerging long-duration energy storage technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 159, 112240 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112240
  2. J.D. Jenkins, N.A. Sepulveda, Long-duration energy storage: a blueprint for research and innovation. Joule 5(9), 2241–2246 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2021.08.002
  3. M. Jafari, A. Botterud, A. Sakti, Decarbonizing power systems: a critical review of the role of energy storage. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 158, 112077 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112077
  4. A. Vecchi, A. Sciacovelli, Long-duration thermo-mechanical energy storage–present and future techno-economic competitiveness. Appl. Energy 334, 120628 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120628
  5. J.A. Dowling, K.Z. Rinaldi, T.H. Ruggles, S.J. Davis, M. Yuan et al., Role of long-duration energy storage in variable renewable electricity systems. Joule 4(9), 1907–1928 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.007
  6. N.A. Sepulveda, J.D. Jenkins, A. Edington, D.S. Mallapragada, R.K. Lester, The design space for long-duration energy storage in decarbonized power systems. Nat. Energy 6(5), 506–516 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00796-8
  7. G. Yang, D. Yang, B. Liu, H. Zhang, The role of short- and long-duration energy storage in reducing the cost of firm photovoltaic generation. Appl. Energy 374, 123914 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123914
  8. M. Staadecker, J. Szinai, P.A. Sánchez-Pérez, S. Kurtz, P. Hidalgo-Gonzalez, The value of long-duration energy storage under various grid conditions in a zero-emissions future. Nat. Commun. 15, 9501 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53274-6
  9. O.J. Guerra, S. Dalvi, A. Thatte, B. Cowiestoll, J. Jorgenson et al., Towards robust and scalable dispatch modeling of long-duration energy storage. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 207, 114940 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114940
  10. A. Khosravani, B.W. Billings, K.M. Powell, What are the best options for long-duration energy storage? A techno-economic comparison of technologies including hybrid energy storage systems. Renew. Energy 256, 124710 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.124710
  11. W. Tong, Z. Lu, W. Chen, M. Han, G. Zhao et al., Solid gravity energy storage: a review. J. Energy Storage 53, 105226 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105226
  12. E. Bazdar, M. Sameti, F. Nasiri, F. Haghighat, Compressed air energy storage in integrated energy systems: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 167, 112701 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112701
  13. M. Han, K. Zheng, H. Hu, J. Liu, Z. Zou et al., Long-duration energy-storage technologies: a stabilizer for new power systems. Innov. Energy 2(2), 100077 (2025). https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-energy.2025.100077
  14. Y. Qiu, Q. Li, T. Wang, L. Yin, W. Chen et al., Optimal planning of cross-regional hydrogen energy storage systems considering the uncertainty. Appl. Energy 326, 119973 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119973
  15. A.Z. Arsad, M.A. Hannan, A.Q. Al-Shetwi, M. Mansur, K.M. Muttaqi et al., Hydrogen energy storage integrated hybrid renewable energy systems: a review analysis for future research directions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 47(39), 17285–17312 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.03.208
  16. H. Liu, L. Xu, Y. Han, X. Chen, P. Sheng et al., Development of a gaseous and solid-state hybrid system for stationary hydrogen energy storage. Green Energy Environ. 6(4), 528–537 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gee.2020.06.006
  17. J. Wang, K. Xue, Y. Guo, J. Ma, X. Zhou et al., Multi-objective capacity programming and operation optimization of an integrated energy system considering hydrogen energy storage for collective energy communities. Energy Convers. Manag. 268, 116057 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116057
  18. J. Xie, Y.-C. Lu, A retrospective on lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 11, 2499 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16259-9
  19. W.E. Gent, G.M. Busse, K.Z. House, The predicted persistence of cobalt in lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Energy 7(12), 1132–1143 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-022-01129-z
  20. C.M. Costa, J.C. Barbosa, R. Gonçalves, H. Castro, F.J. Del Campo et al., Recycling and environmental issues of lithium-ion batteries: advances, challenges and opportunities. Energy Storage Mater. 37, 433–465 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.02.032
  21. Q. Wang, B. Mao, S.I. Stoliarov, J. Sun, A review of lithium ion battery failure mechanisms and fire prevention strategies. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 73, 95–131 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2019.03.002
  22. E. Sánchez-Díez, E. Ventosa, M. Guarnieri, A. Trovò, C. Flox et al., Redox flow batteries: status and perspective towards sustainable stationary energy storage. J. Power. Sources 481, 228804 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228804
  23. X. Xu, C. Zhang, X. Li, Flow battery for long duration energy storage: development, challenges and prospects. Chin. Sci. Bull. 70(9), 1230–1246 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1360/tb-2024-0524
  24. F.R. Brushett, M.J. Aziz, K.E. Rodby, On lifetime and cost of redox-active organics for aqueous flow batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 5(3), 879–884 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.0c00140
  25. H. Zhang, W. Lu, X. Li, Progress and perspectives of flow battery technologies. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2(3), 492–506 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-019-00047-1
  26. V. Singh, S. Kim, J. Kang, H.R. Byon, Aqueous organic redox flow batteries. Nano Res. 12(9), 1988–2001 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-019-2355-2
  27. H. Hu, M. Han, J. Liu, K. Zheng, Z. Zou et al., Strategies for improving the design of porous fiber felt electrodes for all-vanadium redox flow batteries from macro and micro perspectives. Energy Environ. Sci. 18(7), 3085–3119 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee05556j
  28. J. Winsberg, T. Hagemann, T. Janoschka, M.D. Hager, U.S. Schubert, Redox-flow batteries: from metals to organic redox-active materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56(3), 686–711 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201604925
  29. H. Chen, X. Zhang, S. Zhang, S. Wu, F. Chen et al., A comparative study of iron-vanadium and all-vanadium flow battery for large scale energy storage. Chem. Eng. J. 429, 132403 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.132403
  30. C. Zhang, X. Li, Perspective on organic flow batteries for large-scale energy storage. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 30, 100836 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100836
  31. J. Luo, B. Hu, M. Hu, Y. Zhao, T.L. Liu, Status and prospects of organic redox flow batteries toward sustainable energy storage. ACS Energy Lett. 4(9), 2220–2240 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.9b01332
  32. Z. Zhao, X. Liu, M. Zhang, L. Zhang, C. Zhang et al., Development of flow battery technologies using the principles of sustainable chemistry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52(17), 6031–6074 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2cs00765g
  33. Z.-C. Zhang, Y.-B. Mu, L.-J. Xiao, X.-Y. Wei, M.-S. Han et al., Advancements in manganese-based cathodes for aqueous zinc-ion batteries: challenges and optimization strategies. cMat 2(1), e70000 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/cmt2.70000
  34. H. Hu, M. Han, J. Liu, K. Zheng, Y. Mu et al., Development status, challenges, and perspectives of key components and systems of all-vanadium redox flow batteries. Future Batter. 4, 100008 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fub.2024.100008
  35. X.-Z. Yuan, C. Song, A. Platt, N. Zhao, H. Wang et al., A review of all-vanadium redox flow battery durability: degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies. Int. J. Energy Res. 43(13), 6599–6638 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4607
  36. X.L. Zhou, T.S. Zhao, L. An, Y.K. Zeng, X.H. Yan, A vanadium redox flow battery model incorporating the effect of ion concentrations on ion mobility. Appl. Energy 158, 157–166 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.08.028
  37. X. Li, J. Xiong, A. Tang, Y. Qin, J. Liu et al., Investigation of the use of electrolyte viscosity for online state-of-charge monitoring design in vanadium redox flow battery. Appl. Energy 211(C), 1050–1059 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.009
  38. Y. Zhang, K. Ma, X. Kuang, L. Liu, Y. Sun et al., Real-time study of the disequilibrium transfer in vanadium flow batteries at different states of charge via refractive index detection. J. Phys. Chem. C 122(50), 28550–28555 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b10165
  39. F.J. Oldenburg, T.J. Schmidt, L. Gubler, Tackling capacity fading in vanadium flow batteries with amphoteric membranes. J. Power. Sources 368, 68–72 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.051
  40. D.G. Kwabi, Y. Ji, M.J. Aziz, Electrolyte lifetime in aqueous organic redox flow batteries: a critical review. Chem. Rev. 120(14), 6467–6489 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00599
  41. G. Li, R. Liu, Y. Ji, P. Wang, Research progress in positive redox-active materials for aqueous organic redox flow batteries. Acta Chim. Sin. 83(8), 895 (2025). https://doi.org/10.6023/a25030069
  42. S. Rudolph, U. Schröder, I.M. Bayanov, On-line controlled state of charge rebalancing in vanadium redox flow battery. J. Electroanal. Chem. 703, 29–37 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2013.05.011
  43. Z. Li, L. Liu, Y. Zhao, J. Xi, Z. Wu et al., The indefinite cycle life via a method of mixing and online electrolysis for vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 438, 226990 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226990
  44. T. Jirabovornwisut, A. Arpornwichanop, A review on the electrolyte imbalance in vanadium redox flow batteries. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44(45), 24485–24509 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.07.106
  45. H. Long, C. Liao, C. Xie, X. Li, Highly stable electrolyte enables wide temperature vanadium flow batteries. J. Energy Chem. 106, 1038–1045 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2025.05.007
  46. S. Abbas, J. Hwang, H. Kim, S.A. Chae, J.W. Kim et al., Enzyme-inspired formulation of the electrolyte for stable and efficient vanadium redox flow batteries at high temperatures. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11(30), 26842–26853 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b06790
  47. T.D. Nguyen, A. Whitehead, N. Wai, G.G. Scherer, A.N. Simonov et al., Advanced electrolyte formula for robust operation of vanadium redox flow batteries at elevated temperatures. Small 20(27), 2311771 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202311771
  48. L. Wei, T.S. Zhao, Q. Xu, X.L. Zhou, Z.H. Zhang, In-situ investigation of hydrogen evolution behavior in vanadium redox flow batteries. Appl. Energy 190, 1112–1118 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.01.039
  49. K. Ma, Y. Zhang, L. Liu, J. Xi, X. Qiu et al., In situ mapping of activity distribution and oxygen evolution reaction in vanadium flow batteries. Nat. Commun. 10(1), 5286 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13147-9
  50. A. Hollas, X. Wei, V. Murugesan, Z. Nie, B. Li et al., A biomimetic high-capacity phenazine-based anolyte for aqueous organic redox flow batteries. Nat. Energy 3(6), 508–514 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0167-3
  51. J. Gao, K. Amini, T.Y. George, Y. Jing, T. Tsukamoto et al., A high potential, low capacity fade rate iron complex posolyte for aqueous organic flow batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(44), 2202444 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202202444
  52. R. Yang, S. Zhang, Y. Zhu, A high performance, stable anion exchange membrane for alkaline redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 594, 233974 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233974
  53. Q. Sun, K. Dong, Z. Yan, T. Lv, Y. Tan et al., A high-performance aqueous redox flow battery with long cyclic stability enabled by a novel Janus membrane self-assembled from polyelectrolytes. Chem. Eng. J. 526, 171479 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.171479
  54. Y. Liu, L. Yu, L. Liu, J. Xi, Tailoring the vanadium/proton ratio of electrolytes to boost efficiency and stability of vanadium flow batteries over a wide temperature range. Appl. Energy 301, 117454 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117454
  55. M. Wu, M. Nan, Y. Ye, M. Yang, L. Qiao et al., A highly active electrolyte for high-capacity iron-chromium flow batteries. Appl. Energy 358, 122534 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122534
  56. R. Tan, A. Wang, R. Malpass-Evans, R. Williams, E.W. Zhao et al., Hydrophilic microporous membranes for selective ion separation and flow-battery energy storage. Nat. Mater. 19(2), 195–202 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-019-0536-8
  57. C.A. Machado, G.O. Brown, R. Yang, T.E. Hopkins, J.G. Pribyl et al., Redox flow battery membranes: improving battery performance by leveraging structure–property relationships. ACS Energy Lett. 6(1), 158–176 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.0c02205
  58. P. Xiong, L. Zhang, Y. Chen, S. Peng, G. Yu, A chemistry and microstructure perspective on ion-conducting membranes for redox flow batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 60(47), 24770–24798 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202105619
  59. M. Mousavi, H. Dou, H. Fathiannasab, C.J. Silva, A. Yu et al., Elucidating and tackling capacity fading of zinc-iodine redox flow batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 412, 128499 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.128499
  60. Y. Song, X. Li, J. Xiong, L. Yang, G. Pan et al., Electrolyte transfer mechanism and optimization strategy for vanadium flow batteries adopting a Nafion membrane. J. Power. Sources 449, 227503 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227503
  61. Y. Song, X. Li, C. Yan, A. Tang, Unraveling the viscosity impact on volumetric transfer in redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 456, 228004 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228004
  62. P.S. Borchers, M. Strumpf, C. Friebe, I. Nischang, M.D. Hager et al., Aqueous redox flow battery suitable for high temperature applications based on a tailor-made ferrocene copolymer. Adv. Energy Mater. 10(41), 2001825 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001825
  63. R. Huang, S. Liu, Z. He, W. Zhu, G. Ye et al., Electron-deficient sites for improving V2+/V3+ redox kinetics in vanadium redox flow batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(22), 2111661 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202111661
  64. E.W. Zhao, E. Jónsson, R.B. Jethwa, D. Hey, D. Lyu et al., Coupled in situ NMR and EPR studies reveal the electron transfer rate and electrolyte decomposition in redox flow batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143(4), 1885–1895 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.0c10650
  65. W.-J. Zou, S. Jung, Asymmetric auto-rebalancing of electrolyte for high capacity retention and high energy efficiency of vanadium redox flow batteries. Appl. Energy 388, 125663 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125663
  66. M. Vijayakumar, L. Li, G. Graff, J. Liu, H. Zhang et al., Towards understanding the poor thermal stability of V5+ electrolyte solution in vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 196(7), 3669–3672 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.126
  67. W.M. Carvalho Jr., L. Cassayre, D. Quaranta, F. Chauvet, R. El-Hage et al., Stability of highly supersaturated vanadium electrolyte solution and characterization of precipitated phases for vanadium redox flow battery. J. Energy Chem. 61, 436–445 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2021.01.040
  68. H.J. Lee, S. Park, H. Kim, Analysis of the effect of MnO2 precipitation on the performance of a vanadium/manganese redox flow battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 165(5), A952–A956 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0881805jes
  69. Z. Tao, C. Wang, S. Cai, J. Qian, J. Li, Efficiency and oxidation performance of densely flexible side-chain piperidinium-functionalized anion exchange membranes for vanadium redox flow batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 4(12), 14488–14496 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.1c03159
  70. M. Shin, S. Park, K. Hyun, Y. Kwon, Spectroscopic and electrochemical analyses elucidating capacity degradation mechanism of iron-ligand complex and air in all iron aqueous redox flow batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 471, 144682 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.144682
  71. W. Yang, P. Liu, L. Wang, J. Meng, H. Jiang et al., Revisiting the attenuation mechanism of alkaline all-iron ion redox flow batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 487, 150491 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.150491
  72. Y. Liu, Q. Chen, X. Zhang, J. Ran, X. Han et al., Degradation of electrochemical active compounds in aqueous organic redox flow batteries. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 32, 100895 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100895
  73. F. Yang, Y. Zhang, L. Li, R. Yu, P. Wang et al., An unsymmetrically trisubstituted phenazine for high-capacity and stable aqueous flow battery. Chin. Chem. Lett. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2026.112857
  74. P. Wang, Molecular design and redox chemistries for aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs). Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64(51), e202515639 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202515639
  75. S.V. Modak, W. Shen, S. Singh, D. Herrera, F. Oudeif et al., Understanding capacity fade in organic redox-flow batteries by combining spectroscopy with statistical inference techniques. Nat. Commun. 14, 3602 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39257-z
  76. I.A. Volodin, K. Wulf, F. Tzschoeckell, S. Stumpf, S. Hoeppener et al., Evaluation of in situ thermal stability assessment for flow batteries and deeper investigation of the ferrocene co-polymer. J. Mater. Chem. A 12(8), 4806–4825 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ta05809c
  77. D. Xu, C. Zhang, Y. Li, Ferrocene/naphthalimide bi-redox molecule for enhancing the cycling stability of symmetric nonaqueous redox flow battery. J. Power. Sources 602, 234368 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.234368
  78. Q. He, Z. Li, I.T. Bello, Q. Xu, L. Xia et al., A comprehensive modelling study of all vanadium redox flow battery: revealing the combined effects of electrode structure and surface property. J. Energy Storage 66, 107427 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.107427
  79. C. Choi, S. Kim, R. Kim, J. Lee, J. Heo et al., In-situ observation of the degradation of all-vanadium redox flow batteries with dynamic hydrogen reference electrode under real operation conditions. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 70, 355–362 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.10.036
  80. A.K. Singh, M. Pahlevaninezhad, N. Yasri, E.P.L. Roberts, Degradation of carbon electrodes in the all-vanadium redox flow battery. Chemsuschem 14(9), 2100–2111 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202100082
  81. C.T. Wan, K.E. Rodby, M.L. Perry, Y.-M. Chiang, F.R. Brushett, Hydrogen evolution mitigation in iron-chromium redox flow batteries via electrochemical purification of the electrolyte. J. Power. Sources 554, 232248 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.232248
  82. S. Belongia, X. Wang, X. Zhang, Progresses and perspectives of all-iron aqueous redox flow batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(5), 2302077 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202302077
  83. X. Huang, S. Yao, R. Zhou, X. Yang, X. Kan et al., Study on the effect of hydrogen evolution reaction in the zinc-nickel single flow battery. J. Energy Storage 50, 104246 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104246
  84. X. Qian, H.-Y. Jung, S. Jung, A comprehensive study of parasitic gas evolution reactions in a vanadium redox flow battery. J. Clean. Prod. 428, 139468 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139468
  85. S. Fu, R. Liu, Z. Guo, J. Lei, T. Huang et al., A green titanium-cerium redox flow battery with long-term stability via efficient capacity recovery. Chemsuschem 19(7), e202502732 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202502732
  86. M. Shi, Q. Dai, F. Li, T. Li, G. Hou et al., Membranes with well-defined selective layer regulated by controlled solvent diffusion for high power density flow battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 10(34), 2001382 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001382
  87. J. Sharma, H. Khan, P. Upadhyay, A.K. Rajak, S. Mishra et al., Robust sulfonated proton exchange membrane from a poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) melt-interpenetrated polyethylene network for vanadium redox flow batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 7(17), 7384–7396 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.4c01583
  88. Y. Li, L. Sun, L. Cao, J. Bao, M. Skyllas-Kazacos, Dynamic model based membrane permeability estimation for online SOC imbalances monitoring of vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Energy Storage 39, 102688 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102688
  89. Y. Jing, E.W. Zhao, M.A. Goulet, M. Bahari, E.M. Fell et al., In situ electrochemical recomposition of decomposed redox-active species in aqueous organic flow batteries. Nat. Chem. 14(10), 1103–1109 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-022-00967-4
  90. M. Hu, A.P. Wang, J. Luo, Q. Wei, T.L. Liu, Cycling performance and mechanistic insights of ferricyanide electrolytes in alkaline redox flow batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(29), 2301344 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202301344
  91. P. Loktionov, A. Pustovalova, R. Pichugov, D. Konev, A. Antipov, Quantifying effect of faradaic imbalance and crossover on capacity fade of vanadium redox flow battery. Electrochim. Acta 485, 144047 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2024.144047
  92. L. Wei, H. Hou, J. Wang, Y. Chen, Y. Chen et al., Preparation of vanadium flow battery electrolytes: in-depth analysis and prospects of multifaceted approaches. Ionics 31(9), 8779–8788 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-025-06498-5
  93. D. Wei, L. Pan, J. Sun, M. Han, M. Song et al., A novel high-performance all-liquid formic acid redox fuel cell: simultaneously generating electricity and restoring the capacity of flow batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 17(22), 8545–8556 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee02450h
  94. N. Poli, M. Schäffer, A. Trovò, J. Noack, M. Guarnieri et al., Novel electrolyte rebalancing method for vanadium redox flow batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 405, 126583 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126583
  95. P. Loktionov, R. Pichugov, D. Konev, A. Antipov, Reduction of VO2+ in electrolysis cell combined with chemical regeneration of oxidized VO2+ electrolyte for operando capacity recovery of vanadium redox flow battery. Electrochim. Acta 436, 141451 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141451
  96. R. Pichugov, P. Loktionov, A. Pustovalova, A. Glazkov, A. Grishko et al., Restoring capacity and efficiency of vanadium redox flow battery via controlled adjustment of electrolyte composition by electrolysis cell. J. Power. Sources 569, 233013 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233013
  97. Z. Li, J. Xi, L. Liu, Z. Wu, D. Li, Method of reflow and online electrolysis in the vanadium redox battery: benefits and limitations. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 8(27), 10275–10283 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c03297
  98. J.-H. Lee, R. Kim, S. Kim, J. Heo, H. Kwon et al., Dendrite-free Zn electrodeposition triggered by interatomic orbital hybridization of Zn and single vacancy carbon defects for aqueous Zn-based flow batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 13(9), 2839–2848 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ee00723d
  99. S. Wang, Z. Wang, Y. Yin, T. Li, N. Chang et al., A highly reversible zinc deposition for flow batteries regulated by critical concentration induced nucleation. Energy Environ. Sci. 14(7), 4077–4084 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee00783a
  100. J. Hu, M. Yue, H. Zhang, Z. Yuan, X. Li, A boron nitride nanosheets composite membrane for a long-life zinc-based flow battery. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59(17), 6715–6719 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201914819
  101. S. Wang, T. Li, C. Yuan, J. Zhu, P. Li et al., Realizing an anolyte utilization rate of 99% in low-cost zinc-based flow batteries by rejuvenating dead zinc. Energy Environ. Sci. 17(19), 7155–7164 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ee01015a
  102. Y. Zeng, Z. Yang, F. Lu, Y. Xie, A novel tin-bromine redox flow battery for large-scale energy storage. Appl. Energy 255, 113756 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113756
  103. Y.K. Zeng, T.S. Zhao, X.L. Zhou, J. Zou, Y.X. Ren, A hydrogen-ferric ion rebalance cell operating at low hydrogen concentrations for capacity restoration of iron-chromium redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 352, 77–82 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.03.125
  104. Y. Xue, X. Ye, Z. Yu, Z. Peng, S. Xing et al., Mixed-acid mediated electrolyte for high-energy Sn-Fe redox flow batteries with reversible capacity rebalancing. J. Energy Storage 140, 119018 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.119018
  105. T. Páez, A. Martínez-Cuezva, R. Marcilla, J. Palma, E. Ventosa, Mitigating capacity fading in aqueous organic redox flow batteries through a simple electrochemical charge balancing protocol. J. Power. Sources 512, 230516 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230516
  106. S. Guiheneuf, T. Godet-Bar, J.M. Fontmorin, C. Jourdin, D. Floner et al., A new hydroxyanthraquinone derivative with a low and reversible capacity fading process as negolyte in alkaline aqueous redox flow batteries. J. Power. Sources 539, 231600 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.231600
  107. C. Mirle, K. Ramanujam, On capacity upgradation and in situ capacity rebalancing in anthrarufin-based alkaline redox flow batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 5(8), 9711–9721 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.2c01392
  108. S. Wan, X. Liang, H. Jiang, J. Sun, N. Djilali et al., A coupled machine learning and genetic algorithm approach to the design of porous electrodes for redox flow batteries. Appl. Energy 298, 117177 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117177
  109. J. Sun, M. Wu, H. Jiang, X. Fan, T. Zhao, Advances in the design and fabrication of high-performance flow battery electrodes for renewable energy storage. Adv. Appl. Energy 2, 100016 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100016
  110. L. Wei, X.Z. Fan, H.R. Jiang, K. Liu, M.C. Wu et al., Enhanced cycle life of vanadium redox flow battery via a capacity and energy efficiency recovery method. J. Power. Sources 478, 228725 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228725
  111. P. Rao, S. Jayanti, Influence of electrode design parameters on the performance of vanadium redox flow battery cells at low temperatures. J. Power. Sources 482, 228988 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228988
  112. J. Ramesh, R.S. Dhanarathinam, M. Premalatha, G.A. Pathanjali, M. Raja, Performance enhancement through increased mass transport in a modified novel flow pattern for vanadium redox flow battery. Ionics 31(6), 5505–5520 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-025-06240-1
  113. J. Lin, Z. Ma, S. Liu, H. Song, G. Li et al., Study of the effect of flow frames on the performance of a 10 kW/40 kWh vanadium redox flow battery using a multi-scale model. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 27, 230838 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.a2400544
  114. T. Puleston, A. Trovò, G. Marini, M. Serra, R. Costa-Castelló et al., Design and experimental validation of an optimal remixing procedure for vanadium flow batteries affected by faradaic imbalance. J. Power. Sources 624, 235487 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.235487
  115. M. Jafari, A. Sakti, A. Botterud, Optimization of electrolyte rebalancing in vanadium redox flow batteries. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 37(1), 748–751 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2021.3136769
  116. D. Cremoncini, G.F. Frate, A. Bischi, L. Ferrari, Mixed integer linear program model for optimized scheduling of a vanadium redox flow battery with variable efficiencies, capacity fade, and electrolyte maintenance. J. Energy Storage 59, 106500 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106500
  117. K.E. Rodby, M.L. Perry, F.R. Brushett, Assessing capacity loss remediation methods for asymmetric redox flow battery chemistries using levelized cost of storage. J. Power. Sources 506, 230085 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230085
  118. N. Poli, C. Bonaldo, M. Moretto, M. Guarnieri, Techno-economic assessment of future vanadium flow batteries based on real device/market parameters. Appl. Energy 362, 122954 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122954
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF

Most read articles by the same author(s)